东施效颦译文范文1
关键词：翻译；文化缺失；文化补偿
一、文化缺省及其原因
不同国家的人拥有不同的本国或本民族的文化背景是文化缺失的主要原因。王东风认为文化缺省即共同存在于作者和目标读者间的相关文化背景知识的缺省。从交流的角度看缺省是为了增加交流的效率，因为交谈的双方都理解被缺省的部分。但如果交流的双方或作者与译文读者拥有不同的文化背景、风俗习惯或地理环境，对于原文读者来说理所当然的内容对译文读者来说却可能无法理解，这就造成了文化因素的缺失。例如，当中国人提及松、竹、梅，它们的意象及所代表的含义对中国人来说不言而喻。这三种植物在中国被誉为“岁寒三友”，虽然生长于恶劣的环境中但仍不畏严寒，分别象征坚韧、挺拔、不屈的品格。但外国人却无法了解它们背后所蕴含的情感，在他们看来只是三种简单的植物。造成文化因素缺失的原因多种多样。首先是“译者本身的语言和文化素养不足造成的文化缺失。”译者是沟通、转换两种语言的媒介，如果译者本身在语言功底方面有所欠缺，在翻译的过程中不能理解隐含在文字之中的意义及文化意象，会导致文化因素的缺失。第二个造成文化缺失的原因是意译。因为意译只注重原文大意的表达，而对原文的形式、细节并不做过多考虑，这一过程会造成很多文化意象的流失。文化缺失的第三个原因是由一种翻译策略――归化造成的。因为归化是以目标读者为中心，直接将原文中晦涩难懂的部分用译者所熟悉的文化或内容取代。基于以上原因翻译的过程中存在文化缺失。
二、文化缺失的补偿策略
翻译是来自不同国家和文化的人相互沟通的手段。为了传播原文化，在翻译的过程中不能简单地将文化因素省略。“当代著名翻译理论家奈达(Eugene Nida)曾说过：‘Inany translation there will be a type of loss of semanticcontent.but the process should’be designed as t0 keepthis to a minimum’”因此在翻译过程中应该使用一些策略去补偿缺失的文化因素。
第一种方法是直译。刘重德指出：“简单地说直译即不改变原始文字或句子；严格来说它试图保持句子原有的形式。”直译广泛应用于翻译中。一些英语词汇可以直接翻译成汉语，如hot dog的译文“热狗”就被广泛接受。一些汉语短语或习语也可直译为英语，如传统的中国食物“春卷”就被译成spring roll而被外国人所熟知。再如俗语“三天打渔，两天晒网”，我们可以将其译为One day fish and two days to dryone’s net.这里要指出不同的语言可能会有不同的文化意象，这时要特别注意。
第二种补偿策略是在直译的基础上加注解。将原语中的意象直接译为目的语时，其在原语文化中的特殊含义有时不能被译文读者所理解，此时可以通过加注解决这一问题。注解有文内注和脚注两种。前者紧跟在被解释的词语之后确保读者能马上清楚所看到的词语含义，后者通常位于页面的底部，不影响文章的连贯性。加注还可以分为音译加注和直译加注。音译加注通常出现在名称、地点或术语的翻译之后。如将“秦始皇”译成Qinshi－huang，the first Chinese Emperor，200B.C.(who united China)。翻译中有很多直译加注解的例子。《红楼梦》里有这样一句话：“难道这也是痴丫头，也像颦儿来葬花不成?”他又暗自笑道：“若真葬花，可谓‘东施效颦’了，不但不为奇，而且更为可厌。”杨宪益和戴乃迭译成：“Can this be another absurd maid to bury flowerslike Taiyu?”He wondered in some amusement.“Ifs0，she’s Tung Shih imitating Hsi Shih，which is notoriginal but rather tiresome.”(Hsi Shih was a famousbeauty in the ancient Kingdom of Yueh.Tung Shih wasall ugly girl who tried t0 imitate her ways.)”注解使译文读者知晓东施效颦这四个字的含义，同时对中国的历史和文化有了初步了解。注解不但传递文化信息，同时还再现了原文的美学价值。
东施效颦译文范文2
关键词：文化差异 习语 翻译方法
习语是某一语言在使用过程中形成的独特的固定的表达方式。英汉两种语言历史悠久，包含着大量的习语，它们或含蓄、幽默、或严肃、典雅，不仅言简意赅，而且形象生动，妙趣横和，给人一种美的享受。由于地理、历史、、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语承载着不民的民族文化特色和文化信息，它们与文化传统紧密相连，不可分割。
一、英汉习语中所反映的文化差异
文化差异存在于人类文明的任何阶段。每个民族、国家的文化都不同于另一个民族、国家的文化。中西文化的差别是显而易见的。英汉习语所反映的文化差异主要表现在以下几个方面。
1. 历史典故
历史典故是民族历史文化中的瑰宝, 它具有浓厚的民族色彩和鲜明的文化个性及丰富的历史文化信息, 最能体现不同历史文化的特点。英汉两种语言中有大量历史典故形成的习语, 这些习语结构简单、意义深远, 往往不能单从字面意义去理解和翻译。例如“三个臭皮匠, 合成一个诸葛亮”。诸葛亮是中国历史上的著名人物, 在中国可谓家喻户晓, 他在中国读者的心目中当然是智慧的象征。但英美读者未必知道他是何许人也,与“臭皮匠”又有什么关系, 若采用直译的方法, 很难传递它所蕴涵的历史文化信息。还有大量的习语如: “东施效颦”、 “项庄舞剑, 意在沛公”、“司马昭之心, 路人皆知”、“狗咬吕洞宾, 不识好人心”等等。英语典故习语多来自《圣经》和希腊罗马神话, 也有莎士比亚作品中的典故。如Achilles’heel (唯一致命弱点) , a Pandora’s box (潘多拉之盒―――灾难、麻烦、祸害的根源等) , paint the lily (画蛇添足) , meet one’s waterloo(一败涂地) , cut the Gordian’s knot (快刀斩乱麻) 等等。
2. 方面
与有关的习语也大量出现在英汉语言中。我国的信仰宗教有佛教和道教等。与此相关的习语有很多, 如“借花献佛”、“缘木求鱼”、“闲时不烧香, 临时抱佛脚”等。在道教中，有“玉帝”、“龙王”、“开天辟地”的和“主宰自然界”的老天爷。而这些概念在欧美文化中并不存在。欧美人信奉基督教, 认为世界是上帝创造的, 世上的一切都是按上帝的旨意办的。相关的习语如God helps those whohelp themselves (上帝帮助自助的人) , God be with you (上帝与你同在) , 也有Go to hell (下地狱去) 这样的诅咒语。
3. 风俗习惯差异
在风俗习惯差异方面,最典型的莫过于在对狗这种动物的态度上。“狗”与“dog”在中西方文化中具有不同的价值观念。狗在汉语文化中是一种低微的动物。对中国人来说, 大多数情况下, 狗是令人讨厌的东西, 其形象是肮脏、龌龊的。汉语与狗有关的习语大都含有贬义, 如“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗胆包天”、“狗嘴里吐不出象牙”等等。而在西方英语国家中, 狗被认为是心爱的东西或人类最忠实的朋友。欧美人爱狗如爱子,经常让它与人平起平坐, 把它看作家庭的一员。英语中有关狗的习语大都没有贬义, 如topdog (最重要的人物) ,lucky dog (幸运儿) 。在英语习语中常以狗的形象来比喻人的行为，如Every dog has his day (人皆有得意之时) ，形容人“病得厉害”用sick as a dog ,“累及了”是dog tired。与此相反, 中国人喜欢猫, 猫在中国的文化内涵中一般指其可爱精灵的特性。人们常用“谗猫”比喻人贪嘴, 常有亲昵的成分。而在西方文化中, “cat”是魔鬼的化身, 是中世纪巫婆的守护精灵, 人们厌恶它, 所以She is a cat， 是指“她是一个包藏祸心的女人”。
4. 地理环境的差别
习语的产生与人们所处的地理环境, 人们的劳动和生活密切相关。英国是一个岛国, 历史上航海业曾一度领先世界, 而汉族在亚洲大陆生活繁衍, 人们的生活离不开土地。因而在形容某人花钱大手大脚时, 英语是spend moneylike water , 而汉语是“挥金如土”。在中国人的心目中, “东风”即是“春天的风”, 它象征着“春天”、“温暖”, 它吹绿了中华大地, 使万物复苏,故有“东风报春”之说, 所以中国人偏爱东风。而英国的“东风”是从欧洲大陆吹来的, 象征“寒冷”、“令人不愉快”, 因此英国人讨厌“东风”。英谚中有When the wind isin the east , it’s good for neither man nor beast. (东风到, 寒风吹, 对人对畜都不好) 。不过英国人喜欢“西风”, 在英国, 报告春天的消息是“西风”, 它给英伦三岛送去春天,故有“西风报春”之言。
二、英汉习语翻译的具体原则和方法
关于翻译的标准, 中外翻译理论家们提出了不同的主张，但中心要旨都是译文要忠实准确地表达原文的意义, 保持原作的风格, 重视反映原作的风貌。翻译是再现原作的过程, 能忠实再现原作的全部内容和特点的译文就是好的译文。在习语的翻译上主要可以采取以下几种方法:
1.直译
直译就是在不违背译文语言规范以及不引起错误的联想的条件下, 在译文中保留习语的比喻、形象和民族、地方色彩的方法。各民族的文化作为人类发展的一个组成部分, 具有共性的东西。也就是说, 由于人们在感情, 在对客观事物的感受及社会经历等方面会有相似之处, 英汉习语中也会有少量相同或近似的习语。这些习语字面意义、形象意义相同或相近, 隐含意义相同, 也就是说习语所表达的实际意义相同, 可以互译。如Easy come , easy go 与汉谚“来得容易, 去得快”, To be on thin ice 与“如履薄冰”,a drop in the ocean 与“沧海一粟”, to be out at elbows 与“捉襟见肘”, at sixes and sevens 可以译为“乱七八糟”等。
有时有的习语的比喻、形象可能对读者比较生疏, 但由于它在一定的上下文中具有强烈的政治意义, 或明显的民族、地方历史等色彩, 宜采用保留原文习语表达方式的直译法。如The Trojan horse 译成“特洛伊木马”, armed tothe teeth 直译成“武装到牙齿”, a cat has nine lives 则可译成“猫有九命”, tower of ivory 为“象牙塔”, “八股文”译作eight - legged essay。
2.意译
一些文化意义很浓的习语, 直译不能传达文化意义,更换又易将译文文化强加到原文文化中, 增词太多无异于解释, 遇到此种情况应采取意译。如我们所熟悉的英谚“When in Rome , do as the Romans do”如果按字面直译则会使读者费解, 为什么是罗马而不是其他地方? 其实这句话隐含着“入乡随俗”的意义, 应采取意译。我们知道,“龙”在英汉两种文化中意义完全不同。在汉语中“龙”是“高贵”、“尊严”的象征。而英语中对应的dragon 的文化意义是“怪物、魔鬼、凶残”等。因此“望子成龙”不可直译成to hope that one’s son will becomedragon , 而应译为to hope that one’s son will become somebody。又如英语习语中的a cat on hot bricks , 形象是一只在炽热的砖头上行走的猫, 痛苦而狼狈, 这个情景与汉语中的“热锅上的蚂蚁”不谋而合, 都表示“焦急而狼狈”, 翻译时更换了形象, 更有利于读者的理解。
3.增译
为了保留原文的文化色彩, 而直译又不能使读者理解时, 可在直译的基础上增加适当的解释性的词, 使译文形象生动, 体现出原文的风格和韵味。如: “黄鼠狼给鸡拜年―――The weasel goes to pay his respects to the hen ―――notwith the best of intentions ; 盲人瞎马―――A blind man on ablind horse ―――rushing headlong to disaster .此外, 对一些习语可采取直译加注的方法, 以使读者了解原文习语所蕴涵的文化意义。如“东施效颦”如果只译为Dongshi imitates Xishi , 就会使西方读者无法了解其所蕴涵的文化意义, 东施是谁, 西施又是什么样子, 因此译为Dongshi , an ugly woman , knitting her brows in imitationof the famous beauty Xishi , only to make herself uglier , 就使读者一目了然。
参考文献:
[1 ] 张宁. 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译[ J ] . 中国翻译,1999 , (3) .
东施效颦译文范文3
关键词：成语，文化差异，直译，意译
而历史文化的另一个重要内容体现时历史典故。历史典故是民族历史文化中的瑰宝，它具有浓厚的民族色彩和鲜明的文化个性，蕴涵着丰富的历史文化信息，最能体现不同文化的特点。典故的多重意义来源于它的“互文性”（intertextuality），即与其他文本的关联，它受文化圈的限制，脱离了特定的文化背景，典故就失去了它用简单符号传达复杂信息的功能。汉语的典故成语多出自“四书”，“五经”或神话传说等，例如“东施效颦”，“名落孙山”等。英语的典故成语多来自《圣经》，希腊罗马神话或《伊索寓言》等，例如：Achilles’ hell(唯一致命弱点), a Pandora’s box(潘多拉盒子：灾难、麻烦、祸害的根源)等。这些成语结构简单，却意义深远，往往不能从字面意思去理解。汉语中有这样一句成语“说曹操，曹操到”，如果保留语言特色译为“talk of Tsao Tsao and he will appear”,对英语文化背景的人来说就会感到莫明其妙。但如果借用英语成语，译为“talk of the devil and he will appear”,则能很好地传达汉语的言内之意。
二、英汉成语翻译的策略
翻译是“用一种语言（目的语）等值的文本材料来取代另一种语言（源语）的文本材料”（Catford 1965,20）。翻译离不开语言的转换，但远比单纯的语言转换要复杂。其中一个重要原因就是语言反映文化，而且受文化的制约。要成功地进行语言转换，不但要掌握两种语言，还要熟悉两种语言所代表地文化。“翻译者必须是一个真正意义地文化人，因为他处理的是个别的词，他面对的则是两大片文化。”（王佐良 1989，18，19）英汉成语是英汉两种语言的核心和精华，具有强烈的民族文化色彩，也确切地反映出两个民族之间的文化差异，因此使得英汉成语的互译存在一定的难度。所以，为了保证译文与原文能够在形式和内容上保持相应的对应关系，使原语与目标语尽可能地趋于相等，根据等效翻译原则，结合翻译中最常用的两种方法即直译和意译，对英汉成语进行翻译时，可以采用以下几种方法：
I．直译
所谓直译，是指在符合译文语言规范又不会引起错误联想的条件下，在译文成语中仍保留原文成语的比喻、形象和民族、地方色彩的方法。目标语与原语常常用相同的表达形式来体现同样的内容，并能产生同样的效果。在这样情况下，就采用直译。
（1）直译保留形象
这种译法既传达原文的字面意思，又保留原语的文化特色。英汉成语中有些在内容和形式上都相符合，不仅比喻意义和感情色彩相一致，而且连形体设喻也相同或大体相同，也没有很深的含义和难解的典故。所以互译时，可以直接套用目标语中的同义成语，做到基本对译。例如：A gentleman’s agreement (君子协定)；Wall have ears (隔墙有耳)；竭泽而渔 (to drain a pond to catch all the fish)； 前人栽树，后人乘凉 (One generation plants the trees under whose shade anothergeneration rests)。虽然因为文化背景的差异，译文读者对译文的反应与原文读者对原文的反应无法达到完全一致，但这种译法可以丰富译语的词汇，使读者体验到一种新鲜感，这也是它的一个可取之处。
（2）直译加注传达形象
这种译法保留原文的形象，再现原语的风貌。英汉语言中都有一些具有鲜明的民族特色，尤其是字面上显示出民族色彩的成语，有些此类的成语中还出现了本民族的历史典故、人物等。在不违背译文语言规范，以及不引起错误联想的前提下，在互译时，可以采用这种方法以保留原文的色彩，向读者展示充满异域风情的历史文化的传统。例如：“东施效颦”--- “Dong Shi imitating Xi Shi”(Dong Shi, an ugly woman, knittingher brows in imitation of the famous beauty---Xi Shi, only to make herself allthe uglier---blind imitation with ludicrous effect.)。又如，“叶公好龙”--- “Lord Sheh’s love of dragon”(Lord Sheh was so fond of dragonsthat he adorned his whole palace with drawing and carvings of them. But when areal dragon heard of his infatuation and paid him a visit, he was frightenedout of his wits.)。
汉语的成语中有很多都涉及到具有浓厚中国历史文化色彩的人物，而在英语中不可能找到可替代的形象，且原文的字面中蕴含着深厚的民族文化内涵，所以不可抛弃。在这种情况下，多半保留原语中的形象，再加上些许解释性的文字，使英文读者看过之后能够理解这些成语的含义，并了解汉语言文化的源远流长。这种译法保留了原文的形象，再现了原语的风貌，避免了由于文化背景的差异可能导致的不理解甚至误解，力求做到形式相当，效果也基本相同。
II.意译
在直译的过程中，我们会发现有些英汉成语中所蕴含的文化、历史背景较多，如果还按照字面直译，需要加上较多的解释性文字，这样会失去成语精粹的特点。此时，我们就需要绕开其文化背景，直接译出其真正的内涵意义，这也就是我们所说的意译。。它是指在译语受到文化差异的局限时，不得不舍弃原文字面意义，以求得译文与原文的内容相符和主要语言功能相似的方法。
由于英汉民族在文化、历史、宗教等方面有着较大的差别，因此在长期的历史演变过程中，所形成的成语无论在语言形式或表达方式上各有特色。无论是英语还是汉语，都有许多成语在意义和修辞手法上有相似之处，只是因为文化背景的原因，它们所用来打比方的物体不同，在这种情况下，为了使译文读者更清楚地了解原文，我们通常可以把原语中的比喻形象转换成目标语中为译文读者所熟悉的形象。例如：“雨后春笋”要意译为“to spring up like mushrooms” 而不能用“bamboo”一词，“胆小如鼠”应该翻译成“as timid as rabbit”而不是“mouse”,“害群之马”不能译为“blackhorse”只能译为“black sheep”。
此外，在英汉成语中，还有一些成语的比喻形象无法在另一种语言中找到对应体，又不能进行直译，这时可以配合上下文进行意译，以保持原作思想内容的完整，译出它们的内在含义。例如：汉语成语“有鼻子有眼”要意译为“to describe a thing very vividly”而不能直译为“witha nose and an eye”, “一五一十”要意译为“to tell the whole story”而决不能直译为“one five oneten”,若这样翻译，译文的读者肯定会感到莫名其妙。。同样在英语中的“to be full of beans” “have a bee in one’sbonnet”也不能直译，而应该译成“精力充沛”“胡思乱想”。还有，对于有些含有浓郁文化色彩的英汉成语，例如“望子成龙”，如果直译成“long to see one’s son become a dragon”不但不能传达源语文化的意义，甚至会促使源语文化信息丧失，这时我们就应该意译为“long to see one’s son succeed in life”,这样就能很清楚地表达出成语真正的含义。
III．直译与意译兼用
有些英汉成语带有很明显的文化痕迹，如果想更确切地表达原意，尽量保存原文的民族特色和国情内容，单纯的直译或意译都是无法办到的。这时就可以采用直译意译相结合的方法，虽然不如原文的间洁，但可以弥补直译难以达意，意译难以传神的不足。例如：在英语中，有这样一句成语“Even Homer sometimes nods”。当看到这句成语时，对于不熟悉西方文学史的中国读者都不知道如何来翻译这句话，因为在汉语文化中不存在这样的一个人物。“Homer”指的是荷马，他是希腊史诗的作者，创作了西方文学最伟大的两部作品《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》，被人们称作是最有智慧的人。所以在这句成语后面，译者会加上一句“---Even the wise are not always free from error.”,这样的话对于译文的读者来说就不会存在理解的问题了，而这句成语也正好对应了中国的一句成语“智者千虑，必有一失”。。又如汉语中的一句成语“走马观花”，直译为“to look at flowers while riding on the back of a galloping horse”,外国读者可能会感到费解，所以我们要结合意译“---gain a superficialunderstanding through cursory observation”,这样原文的意义和形象能够在最大程度上表现出来。需要说明的是，采用这种方法，虽然会使得译文相对较长，不够简练，但基本上既传达了意义又保留了形象，可算有失有得，仍不失为一种形式和效果都相等的译法。
三．结束语
英汉成语是英汉两个民族语言中最生动、最精练，也是最富有民族文化特色的部分。成语翻译的关键是文化特征的传译，因此译者要了解原语和译语的文化，在英汉成语的翻译过程中根据实际情况灵活地采用恰当的译法，不仅要确切地传达原文的含义，更要体现源语强烈的民族特色和丰富的文化内涵，从而达到所谓译文与原文的“功能的同一”。
参考文献：
[1]柯平，英汉与汉英翻译教程[M]，北京：北京大学出版社，1993，134.
[2]张先刚，英汉惯用语对比与翻译[J]，河南: 安阳师范学院学报，2001(1):63-66.
[3]陈文伯，英语成语与汉语成语[M]，北京: 外语教学与研究出版社，1982年。
[4]王佐良，翻译：思考与笔试[M]，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1989,18-19.
[5]蒋坚松，英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]，湖南: 湖南人民出版社，2002年, 143-147.
[6]王武兴，英汉语言对比与翻译[M]，北京: 北京大学出版社，2003年。
[7]Nida, Eugene A. Language, Culture and Translating [M], Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993，109.
东施效颦译文范文4
[key words] domestication; foreignization; cultural translation theory; chinese idioms
【摘 要】归化与异化是两种不同的翻译策略。译界有许多学者对此发表了许多的观点。归化与异化之争由来已久，从古至今，从西方到中国，归化与异化都是学者译者们争论的热门话题之一。翻译基本上是一种语言转换活动但又不是一项纯粹的语言转换活动，它还牵涉到种种非语言因素，特别是牵涉到种种文化因素。翻译不仅是语言层面更是文化层面上的一种活动，其本质是文化交流。自20世纪80年代后，许多学者针对归化与异化提出了应该从文化角度来审视二者的观点。孙致礼在《翻译的异化与归化》中提到: “翻译的根本任务是准确而完整地传达原作的 ‘思想’和 ‘风味’。在翻译中，译者不仅要考虑语言的差异，还要密切注视文化的差异，力求最大限度地保存原文所蕴涵的异域文化特色。如果不是万不得已，特别不宜归化，而要尽可能真实地传达出来。” “归化主要表现在 ‘纯语言层面’，在 ‘文化层面’上则应力求最大限度的异化。”以汉语习语为例，在当今跨文化交流不断发展的趋势下，译者在翻译中应多从文化的角度考虑，适度加以应用 “异化”策略及其方法，尽可能重现汉语习语的文化特征及内涵，让西方人更多更好地了解中国，接触中华民族博大精深的文化，同时也有利于传播中国独有的文化气息，进而有利于实现中国与世界各国进一步交流。
[关键词] 归化;异化;文化翻译观;汉语习语
1. on cultural translation theory
cultural translation is discussed in the broad context of culture. it includes an analysis of the surface and deep structures of culture and language, and the examination of the internal context between culture and translation as well as the objective laws pertaining to their interaction. in late 1980s, many scholars began to give their own opinions on translation from the perspective of culture. umberto eco considered that translation equals to culture, that is to say, the translation activity is a kind of cultural transportation. “ lambert and robyns held that translation should be treated as not only an activity between two languages but also a communicative activity between two cultures. nida pointed out: for a truly successful translation, bicultural ability is much more important than bilingual ability” [1] p70. some scholars suggested that culture but not text should be regarded as the translation unit and translators should pay more attention to culture during translation. to some extent, those views became symbols of formation of cultural translation theory.
different cultures have different features. culture indicates a nation, region or a race’s feature. and the communication of different cultures needs translation. translation is the production and intermedium of cultural communication. “translation reflects the features of both cultures when one language and culture is translated into another. and the aim of translation is to transfer the source culture into the target culture” [2] p24. “wang zuoliang pointed out: the difference between two cultures is the most difficult thing in translation, so translators should have a good knowledge of both the foreign culture and the native culture. the more translators understand the cultural information, the more possibly they can master the language and reproduce the original culture. han ziman viewed that the features of culture have an effect on the whole translation activities and the vise versa is also true” [3] p116. therefore, the transference of cultural information should play a key role in translation.
in the broad context of culture, translation means not only one language being transferred into another but also a communication between two cultures. and the purpose of translation is to promote cultural communication. translation is a kind of cultural activity that translators reproduce the original culture in the target text. cultural information but not language is the object of translation. “during translation, translators should translate the ‘form’ and ‘essence’ of the original language into the target language directly and exactly. i.e., translation should reserve the cultural difference and reproduce the original ‘foreignness’ as much as possible” [4] p37. here, “‘foreignness’ means that translation should keep as much as possible the cultural features and information of the source text” [5] p136. all in all, in cultural translation, translators should take culture into consideration and reconstruct the source culture as much as possible into the target language during translation.
2. domestication and foreignization under the light of cultural translation
2.1 the origin and definition of domestication and foreignization
the pair of terms, domestication and foreignization, was mentioned in the translator invisibility written by american famous translator l.venuti in 1995, which were used to describe two kinds of translation strategies. their taking out were on the basis of germany philosopher schleier marcher, who viewed that there were two kinds of translation, one was “the translator leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him.” the other was ” the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him.”[6] p21 .according to marcher’s opinion, the former sentence refers to mean the reader-oriented translation while the latter the author-oriented one. the reader-oriented translation refers to the translation that translators pay more attention to the target language readers’ conventions and understandings while the author-oriented one means to the translation that translators take the source language author’s ideas and style into account. however, he never used special terms to summarize them. it was schuttleworth and cowie who defined them. they gave “domestication” a definition as “a term used by venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers.”[7] p21 venuti considered that “domestication” contained derogatory meaning, because “it is identified with a polity common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being ‘accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other” [8] p21. in other words, according to venuti’s opinion, “domestication” used in translation indicates the meaning of the “dominant culture” recombining the language and cultural features of the source text with the purpose of dominating the “weak culture”.
for “foreignization”, schuttleworth and cowie defined it as “a term used by venuti to designate the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions be retaining something of the foreignness of the original.” venuti regarded it as a challenging strategy to “domestication” and its effect is to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad.” [9] p21 in translation, translators should reserve the language and culture features of the source text; therefore, readers of the target text can feel some “strangeness” of other cultures.
the definition of domestication and foreignizafion has changed when they are introduced into china. “and the scope of reference is enlarged .it refers to not only the translation from foreign languages to english but also the translation from one language to another, especially from chinese to other languages”[10] p22. what’s more, the elements of cultural inequality never draw people’s great attention and even are forgotten.
from the exploration and discussion mentioned above, now we can sum up domestication and foreignization in this way: they are two different translation strategies used by translators according to different aspects such as the difference between two languages and cultures, translation purpose, type of text, intention of the author and readers of the target language etc. “domestication” holds that translation should be in accordance with the target language and culture and get rid of the barriers as much as possible so as to meet the target language readers demands; “foreignization” views that translation should reserve the cultural features of source language so as to enrich the target language and culture and meet the target language readers’ demand of “strangeness”. “domestication and foreignization is a pair of complementary translation strategies that don’t reject against each other” [11] p68.
2.2 foreignization-oriented strategy under the light of cultural translation
generally speaking, domesticating translation gives the reader more convenience and saves the reader much time. in the global information age, convenience and briefness become more and more important. to some extent information is money and time is money. so it seems that we should use domestication strategy as much as we can in translation. however, generally speaking, foreignizing translation gives the reader more information than the domesticating one. from the perspective of information theory, only new information is useful information. if the translation can only provide “old” information, it is not so valuable. supposing the source text and the target text convey the same information, the target reader still get something new if what he or she reads is a foreignized translation. meanwhile, with the development of high technology and the improved means of communication, more and more people want to learn foreign culture and knowledge and in assimilating and learning foreign language and culture, foreignization is useful and essential. in china, with the policy of “reform and openings to the world”, china communicates more frequently with foreign countries. more and more foreigners take great interest in chinese culture and urgently want to acquire chinese culture knowledge. it is foreignized translation that can meet this need much better. the reasons are as follows:
first, the nature of foreignization determines that its dealing with the elements with obvious cultural features in the source text should inevitably results in bringing some new expressions and cultural connotations in the target text, i.e., bringing some “foreignness”. since exchanges among different countries become more and more frequently, nowadays, many sorts of languages attain enrichments to some extent. and foreignization translation plays an important role in the process. for example, terms and expressions like “internet, gene, blue print, killing two birds with one stone, crocodile tears” enriched chinese and “qigong, taijiquan, kongfu, typhoon, tofu” etc. enriched english. and translators use foreignization to make many “foreign” words gradually be accepted and extensively be spread to the public. in some way, foreignization is beneficial for absorbing new elements of foreign language. once they were accepted, expressions of the target language would be enriched and communication further promoted.
in addition, the gaps among different countries become smaller and smaller because of frequent international communication in politics, economics, culture, etc. and globalization is also becoming the tendency of social development. therefore, knowing more about foreign countries becomes an inevitable part of life. foreignization is beneficial not only for introducing native culture to foreigners but also for making native people be familiar with foreign cultures. in this way, people from different countries can communicate with each other better. for example, if “铁饭碗”and “下海”are translated directly into “iron rice bowl” and “to jump into the sea of business”, the translations reserve the image as well as the meaning of the source language. meanwhile, the unique chinese culture has been introduced to english readers. take an english idiom “to paint the lily” as another example. if it is translated into“多此一举”,the symbolic meaning of “lily” in western countries would not be known to the chinese. so it is better to translate it into“为百合花上色” so that chinese people can know the symbolic meaning of “lily” and some more about western culture.
foreignization, in some way, has an active effect on cross-cultural communication. however, some translators usually take the readers’ acceptable abilities into account to turn against it. they consider that readers may feel difficult to understand or even misunderstand the source text in a foreignized translation. in fact, readers are active. if they find some foreign elements in the translation that they have never contacted before, they will try to understand and accept it actively in terms of the contexts or notes. in this way, they also can enrich their own reading experience. with the increasing development of cultural communication, target readers should become more and more interested in foreign culture, so to some extent, domestication is not good for readers to know more cultural information of the source language. therefore, translators should believe in the capability of the target readers. in the end, it is necessary to point out that putting more emphasis on foreignization doesn’t mean to deny or reject domestication, for both the two strategies are a pair of contradictory unity. however, with the development of cultural globalization, putting more emphasis on foreignization will be more helpful for the cultural communication among different nations. venuti thought that fluent domesticating translation made translators suffer from “invisibility” and the difference between cultures had also been covered, so the target language readers will lose “strangeness”, i.e., “the target language readers cannot feel the original style and cultural differences in domesticating translation”[12]p 25. sun zhili stated that domestication mainly embodies in “the level of pure language” and foreignization “in the level of culture”. “since the exchanges of cultural information among different countries become more and more frequent and people from all over the world communicate with each other increasingly frequently, foreignization should be foregrounded”[13]p42. in my opinion, foreignization should be considered more in order to reproduce culture differences in the target language.
3. in translating chinese idioms into english, foreignization should be the leading translation strategy
3.1 foreignization is helpful to reproduce chinese culture in translating chinese idioms
chinese idioms mainly come from chinese ancient fables, fairy tales, historical events and allusions. they bear rich and colorful chinese unique culture. since the open-door policy has been issued and cultural communication between china and foreign countries becomes more and more frequent, chinese culture has been gradually understood and accepted by more and more foreigners and chinese idioms, as one part of chinese culture, also have been appreciated. therefore, the translation of chinese idioms becomes an important part of translation of culture. in translating chinese idioms into english, translators should reserve chinese culture and reproduce it in target texts. and translators should choose foreignization as the first translation strategy, for foreignization is helpful to reproduce the cultural features and information of chinese idioms in translation. that is to say, in translating chinese idioms into english, translators should reserve as much as possible the cultural features of chinese idioms and translate the connotations of them as well. if translators choose domestication in translating chinese idioms into english, it would be unlikely for english readers to contact with the cultural flavor of chinese idioms. meanwhile, it would not help to retain chinese culture and promote cultural communication.
take “巧媳妇难为无米之炊”as an example. if it is translated into “even the cleverest housewife can’t make bread without flour.” chinese cultural features have failed to be retained though english readers can understand it easily. in this way, english readers will not know what “rice” means to chinese people and even think that “bread” is the main food of both chinese and themselves. if so, it will not good for communicating. therefore, the idiom should be translated into “even the cleverest housewife can’t cook a meal without rice.” in this way, the cultural concept of “rice” is reserved and the cultural feature of the idiom is reproduced. here is another example, “穷棒子闹翻身是八仙过海各显神通”. it can be translated into “the way we poor folks try to emancipate ourselves, is just like the way the eight fairies crossed the sea each displaying his own talent.”[14] p143-144 in this way, the image of “the eight fairies” has been reserved and the connotations of it “each displaying his own talent” has been translated. of course, translators can add an extra explanation to introduce“八仙”to english readers for knowing more about the idiom, i.e., “the eight fairies” is the eight immortals of taoism in chinese folklore.
perhaps, some people will doubt that english readers may have difficulty in understanding and even misunderstand some idioms if they are translated in this way, for the cultural differences between chinese and english really exist. in my opinion, translators should not be worried about it. they should believe in the wisdom and imagination of english readers. furthermore, it takes time for one to achieve understanding. with the development of cultural communication, misunderstanding will disappear and english readers will finally accept it. therefore, translators should put the emphasis on cross-cultural communication and try to reserve the cultural differences and reproduce as much as the unique cultural features of chinese idioms. 3.2 several commonly used techniques of foreignization in translating chinese idioms
3.2.1 literal translation
in the translation of chinese idioms, literal translation means that in the condition of not invading the english cultural conventions and not causing the misunderstanding and disassociations, translation should completely preserve the image, figurative and cultural features of chinese idioms in order to pursue the conformity of both the contents and expressions[15]p70.
chinese idioms, as we know, contain one of the deepest cultures of chinese. it bears lots of cultural features and message. therefore, translators should have a deep knowledge of chinese idioms before doing translation. with the correct understanding of chinese idioms, translators should translate the idioms with the guide of cultural reproduction, that is to say, translators should retain cultures of the idioms into english. during translation, translators should translate not only the image and meaning of the idioms but also the cultural connotations.
(1) 七嘴八舌－with seven mouths and eight tongues
the chinese idiom “七嘴八舌” may be translated into “have a loose tongue”. if so, english readers may know the meaning easily. however, they cannot perceive particular way chinese people use to describe “noisy”. if it is translated into “with seven mouths and eight tongues”, english readers may take much more interest in it and try to understand what “seven mouths and eight tongues” really means. in this way, not only will they find out its meaning sooner or later, they also can really learn more about chinese culture.
(2) 东风压倒西风－the east wind subdued the west wind
“东风压倒西风”, it is usually translated into “the east wind subdued the west wind” or “the east wind prevails the west wind” via literal translation. here, the image of “东风” and “西风”has been kept in translation. maybe some people doubt that english readers cannot understand it, for “the west wind” in england is different from that in china, and they may not know what “the east wind” is. in fact, reserving the image of “东风,西风”is to carry out the difference between chinese and english. because of the difference, we need communication, and with the communication, english readers can really know what the real chinese culture is contained in the idiom. therefore, translating “东风压倒西风”directly into english, from the view of translation of culture, is acceptable and necessary, for the whole meaning, image and culture behind it have been reserved and spread in translation.
(3) 一寸光阴,一寸金－an inch of time is an inch of gold
in addition, translators should translate not only the denotations but also the connotations of chinese idioms. “一寸光阴,一寸金”should be translated into “an inch of time is an inch of gold”. here, “gold” is one of the most precious metals in china, so “time” is “gold”. but in western countries, people think “money” is the most important article in life. there is a saying in english: “time is money”. in fact, the meaning of the two sayings is the same. however, “an inch of time is an inch of gold” is a better translation, for the cultural information of “一寸光阴一寸金”can be transferred directly and faithfully into english and the features of chinese culture has been reproduced in translation.
from the examples mentioned above, we can see that literal translation is the first choice of translating chinese idioms, for it can not only reserve the image, style and meaning of chinese idioms but also reconstruct chinese cultural features and information as much as possible.
3.2.2 literal translation with a note
from the view of cultural translation, translation is to promote the communication of culture, so during translating chinese idioms translators can translate the idioms directly first and then plus a note to present the readers the stories lying behind the idioms so as to enhance understanding. to some extent, it will make english readers know more about chinese culture quickly and clearly and even take more interests in chinese culture exists behind the idioms. this will be also helpful to promote cultural communication between chinese and english. here are a few examples:
(4) “难道这也是个傻丫头,又像颦儿来葬花不成?”因又自笑道 “若真也葬花,可谓东施效颦了;不但不为新奇,而是更是讨厌”(dream of the red chamber, chapter 34).
东施效颦－dong shi imitating xi shi
here, “东施效颦”should be directly translated into “dong shi imitating xi shi” in order to let english readers truly contact the image of the idiom. after that, translators may give a simple introduction about “东施效颦”. i.e., dong shi imitating xi shi, which is a zhuangzi's story of the beautiful xi shi's ugly neighbor, who endeavors to imitate the little frown that people ran from her in terror. in this way, english readers can know not only who “dong shi” and “xi shi” are but also what the idiom really means. in this way, chinese culture can be reproduced clearly in translation.
(5) 叶公好龙－lord sheh’s love of dragons
“叶公好龙”, here it can be translated into “lord sheh’s love of dragons” and a concise explanation can be added after it: sheh was so fond of dragons that he adorned his whole palace with drawings and carvings of them, but when a real dragon heard of his infatuation and paid him a visit, he was frightened out of his wits.
(6) 破镜重圆－a broken mirror made whole again
“破镜重圆” should be translated into “a broken mirror made whole again”. however, english readers may feel puzzled about the meaning and cannot understand why a broken mirror can be “whole again”. so a short note is needed: in the northern and southern dynasties when the state of chen (a.d. 557－589) was facing its demise, xu deyan, husband of the princess, broke a bronze mirror into halves. each of them kept a half as tokens in case they were separated. soon afterwards, they did lose touch with each other, but the two halves of the mirror enabled them to be reunited. in this way, the idiom’s deeper meaning can be known expressively.
3.2.3 literal translation with additional remarks
this kind of method is different from the above one. in some way, the images and cultural meanings of idioms can be directly transferred into english during translation. additional remarks usually embodies in phases, one or two short sentences.
(7) 目不识丁－one does not recognize 丁, one of the simplest character in chinese
some people consider that the character “丁” should be translated into “abc”. however, “丁” reflects the unique chinese character culture. if it is translated into “abc”, the exact meaning of “丁” and the culture behind it cannot be reconstructed explicitly in english. on the other hand, for the sake of making english readers understand and know more about chinese characters, a brief illustration is needed here. the character丁 is a very simple one for the chinese. by explaining in this way, the reader can get the connotation while perceiving the image of chinese character.
(8) 泥菩萨过河－the clay idol fording the river
“泥菩萨过河”it is a special chinese idiom. translators can firstly translate it directly into “the clay idol fording the river”. such a translation preserves the vivid feature of the idiom. and secondly, translators should pulse an additional remark to explain the exact meaning of the idiom, i.e., “it is more than one can do to save himself from disaster.” in this way, the features of chinese culture can be retained in translation and english readers also can appreciate the whole idiom better.
(9) 临时抱佛脚－to embrace buddha’s feet in one’s hour of need—to seek help at the last moment
in western countries, many people believe in christ. therefore, they cannot easily understand what “临时抱佛脚” really means if it is translated into “to embrace buddha’s feet in one’s hour of need”. perhaps they would be confused about what “buddha’s feet” is. so a short explanation is necessarily added after it, that is, “to seek help at the last moment”. by illustrating in this way, they can understand the idiom more exactly.
3.2.4 literal translation pulsing free translation
sometimes, in order to express more exactly and effectively about chinese idioms, translators may choose free translation as a secondary tool to transfer the connotations of chinese idioms more completely. of course, translators should use literal translation first to preserve the image and expressions of the idioms and then take free translation into account to reproduce the cultural connotations of chinese idioms more completely. examples are as follows:
(10) 风餐露宿－braving the wind and dew
here “风”and“露” can be translated directly into “wind” and “dew”, but“餐” and“宿” here cannot be translated straight into english counterparts “have a meal” and “stay overnight. therefore, translators have to translate“餐” and“宿” into “braving”. such a translation not only preserves the original features but also make the connotations accepted completely.
(11) 戴着斗笠亲嘴,差着一帽子－it’s like kissing in straw helmets—the lips are far apart!
we can see from the example that the former part is translated directly into english, and the latter one “差着一帽子” , we cannot translate it by literal translation. chinese “斗笠” is different from english “hats or caps”. the straw helmets have wider edges than hats and caps. and two persons wearing helmets may be separated far away while it would not happen when they wear hats or caps. therefore, if it is translated into “separated by a hat”, english readers will fail to understand why. in this case, we can translate it into english by free translation, that is, “the lips are far apart!”
3.2.5 rhetorical transference
many chinese idioms contain not only rich cultural information but also beautiful rhetoric. during translation, translators should not only preserve the images, expressions and cultural connotations but also take the rhetoric methods into consideration. when we read some chinese idioms, we appreciate not only the contents but also the excellent rhetoric. therefore, translators should have much knowledge about these features of chinese idioms and try to transfer the rhetoric as much as possible.
(12) 嘴上无毛,说话不牢－downy lips make thoughtless slips
“毛”and “牢”, are rhymed words and there is a jingle in the phrase. when it is translated into “downy lips make thoughtless slips”, “lips” and “slips” are also rhymed words and such a translation reserves the rhetoric effect as well as the form.
these five kinds of translation skills are chosen according to the strategy of foreignization translation in translating chinese idioms into english. from the view of cultural translation, they are useful and proper skills for translators to reproduce chinese culture in translation and they are helpful for translators to spread chinese culture. in some way, they are beneficial for promoting communication between chinese and english.
conclusion
the purpose of translating chinese idioms into english is to reproduce culture of chinese idioms towards foreign countries. from the perspective of cultural translation, translation of chinese idioms should be foreignized translation. since the cultural communication between english and chinese becomes more and more frequent, foreignization should be paid more attention. increasing proper usage of foreignization can not only reproduce the chinese culture to foreigners and let them know more about chinese culture but also be helpful to promote the cultural communication between chinese and english. during translation, of course, translators cannot use only one strategy or one kind of skill; “‘cultural reproduction’ can also be limited because of some other translation elements” [16] p287. however, to be a translator, the most important thing for him is that he should have a deep cultural sense during translation. and translators should remember that translation is to reproduce culture of the source language and the purpose is to promote cultural translation.
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东施效颦译文范文5
关键词：翻译；语言；文化交流障碍；措施
随着全球经济与科技的不断发展，加强与他国各方面的往来越来越成为必要。在这样的大环境下，以语言交流为中心的翻译工作也变得越来越重要。面对这样的新形势，加深对翻译本质及其目的的认识有助于摆正翻译研究和实践的发展方向以便使其更好的为本国社会发展服务。
一、语言与文化的关系
许多语言学家在谈到语言时都不可避免的论及文化。那么什么是文化？为什么语言与文化总是难解难分？
根据《辞海》的解释，文化“从广义上说，指人类社会历史实践过程中所创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和。从狭义来说，指社会的意识形态，以及与之相适应的制度和组织机构，文化是一种历史现象，每一社会都有与其相适应的文化”。
由此可见，文化渗透于社会的方方面面。而“语言是在人类形成的过程中同步出现的，随着人类的发展而发展，语言是人类之所以成为人类的主要条件”；语言使人类表达内心思想，进行日常交际，组织社会生活和生产劳动成为现实。所以，有了语言，就有了社会，同时也就有了文化的记载和传播。社会的各种文化现象借助于语言承传，语言是人类文化的镜像折射。
二、对翻译的界定
提到“翻译”二字，人们首先会想到“译即易，谓易换言语使相解也”，即两种不同语言（通常被翻译的语言称为源语言或译出语，而翻译之后的语言称为目标语言或译入语）之间词汇与词汇或句子与句子相互对应的一种转换，尽管有时可能会出现词序或句序（涉及语篇层面，这里主要讨论句子及句子以下层面上的翻译）的不一致，但基本上是符合一一对应的原则的。比如：
例1：Iamreadinganovel.
我正在看一本小说。
来看几个词汇方面的例子：
电影TheFirstBlood被译为“第一滴血”。事实上，这是具有文化背景的习语，表示thefirstsuccessinacontest，据此确切的翻译应为“初战告捷”。
短语abridalshower表面好像是“新娘沐浴”，但了解西方背景文化的人就知道它是指apartygivenbyabride’sfriendsatwhichtheygivehersuitablegifts，意即为新娘举行的送礼派队。
由此看出，涉及文化背景方面的翻译并不符合上述定义，该定义并不全面。针对这一点，美国翻译理论家尤金奈达指出“翻译是两种文化之间的交流。对于真正成功的翻译而言，熟悉两种文化甚至比掌握两种语言更重要。因为词语只有在其作用的文化背景中才有意义。”这说明翻译是以语言转换为基础，结合文化背景而进行的一种活动。
对“翻译”的理解，法国解构主义学者德里达、福柯和罗兰·巴特曾把翻译的本质问题视为哲学的中心问题。德里达就指出，不同的语言在意义、句法和语音上的差异，构成各种不同的表意方式，而翻译就是在‘同’与‘异’的纠结之中正确地表现‘异’。他们认为，翻译实质上是原作文本的再生，是在传达原作内容基础上使原作得以生存的手段，是人们真正认识不同语言之间差异和不同语言的特定的表达方式的媒介。
就目前而言，郭建中教授说“最近二十多年来，翻译研究中出现了两个明显的趋势：一是翻译理论深深地打上了交际理论的烙印；二是从重视语言的转换转向更重视文化的转换。这两种倾向的结合，就把翻译看作是一种跨文化交际的行为……翻译已不仅仅被看作是语言符号的转换，而是一种文化转换的模式。”
因此，与其说翻译是对不同语言的易换，不如说是以语言转换为基础，但不单纯是围绕语言符号本身，而是主要围绕语言所蕴含的意义，即语言所代表的文化的交互传递与影响。
三、翻译中存在的文化交流障碍
不同民族由于存在着方方面面的差异，如思维模式、语言、文化、风俗习惯等方面的差异，在进行思想文化交流时必然会出现这样或那样的交流障碍。作为思想文化交流手段之一的翻译，在易换语言，传播信息和文化的过程中自然也不可避免地会遇到同样地问题。造成翻译中思想文化交流障碍的原因主要有以下几个方面：思维模式的差异、语言的差异、文化差异、翻译方法的使用不当。
（一）思维差异
思维方式是精神产品的生产方式，是主体在反映客体的思维过程中，定型化了的思维形式、思维方法和思维程序的有机综合。它主要由知识、观念、方法、智力、情感、意志、语言、习惯等要素组成。正是这些要素各自的特征与结构，规定着思维方式的性质、类型和特征，产生思维方式的差异。
以中国与讲英语国家为例来具体看看他们的思维模式的差异及其对文化交流的影响。
中国传统思维方式的一大特点就是有机整体性，比如“万物一体”、“天人合一”，强调人与自然、人间秩序与宇宙秩序是不可分割、互相影响、互相依存的有机整体；同时中国传统思维由于注重实践经验，注重整体思维，常会通过知觉从总体上模糊而直接地把握事物，这就是所谓的直觉性思维。西方国家与中国恰恰相反，他们一开始就比较重视自然科学的发展，因而形成了分析和逻辑推理的思维模式。两种不同的思维方式必然产生不同的精神产品，比如中国的各种书法书写体、绘画等，它们本身所蕴含的精髓就已经达到了“只可意会不可言传”的程度，更不用说翻译成另一种从未触及过它们的语言了。
“萨莫瓦曾援引过这样的例子：树枝因积雪过多而折断，美国人认为其原因是‘Thelimbwasweak’，而某些东方人则认为是‘Thelimbwasstrong’。西方人认为树枝缺乏支撑积雪重量的刚性；而东方人认为树枝太强，不易弯曲，缺乏柔性，致使雪越积越多，最终树枝被折断，这便是所说的以柔克刚。这一强一弱的观念转换往往会成为翻译的陷阱”。
（二）语言差异
翻译中的语言差异是显而易见的问题。语言差异主要表现在语音、词汇、语法、语义、修辞等方面；译者如果对上述某一或某几方面缺乏认识和精通，翻译中都会造成信息传递的失败，进而形成文化交流的障碍。比如，英语lovewithmyheart（用我的心爱你），和中文差不多，可其它语言有不同的说法：lovewithmyliver，lovewithmystomach，如果只按字面分别译成“用我的肝脏爱你”，“用我的胃爱你”，就会让译文读者不知所云，最终影响交际效果。
（三）文化差异
文化差异是翻译中影响文化交流最大的障碍。语言、文化、翻译三位一体，因此翻译中不可避免地处处渗透着文化的影子。而文化是不同民族在特殊历史地理环境里的独特创造，不同的民族拥有不同的文化。因而翻译中的文化差异是一种客观存在，不容译者忽视。翻译目的论认为，翻译是人类行为研究的范畴，“人类交际受情境的制约，而情境又根植于文化习惯”，翻译必然受译出语文化和译入语文化的制约。如果译者在进行作品的译介时不能妥当地处理其中所蕴含地文化内容，协调源语文化与目的语文化之间存在的差异，势必会造成翻译中“文化真空”现象，从而既影响翻译作品的文学效果，又影响译作传递文化的功效。
（四）翻译手段运用不当
翻译手段使用不当和“文化差异”有很大关系。在对待如何处理翻译中文化差异的问题上，翻译界一般有两种对立的意见，“即所谓‘异化’与‘归化’。前者主张译文应以源语或原文作者为归宿，后者则认为译文应以目标语或译文读者为归宿。就翻译中涉及的文化转换而言，可分为以源语文化为归宿和以目标语文化为归宿这两种原则和方法”。在翻译中如果对“异化”、“归化”选择不当，就会造成文化信息流失。
最典型的一个例子就是对我国的四字成语典故“东施效颦”的翻译，简单采用“异化”手段而译成"DongshiimitatesXishi"，原文的含义未译出，还会让译语读者一头雾水：东施是谁，西施又是什么样子？简单采用“归化”手段而译成“Theuglyimitatesthebeautifulinsuchadistortedwaythattheuglinessoftheuglybecomesworse”，源语所表达的意义是被传递出来了，但源语所传递的文化信息却被遗失了。
四、相应的解决措施
思维模式上存在的差异，是每个民族所特有的，也是不可避免和更改的；而伴随着社会的发展，各民族文化的交流与融合又势在必行。因此，就这一点而言，首先应摆正态度，各民族在进行文化交流的同时，应该本着求同存异的精神，学会尊重、认识和接纳他民族的思维模式，而不是将与本民族思维模式不同的其他思维模式视为异端；在与他民族的思维模式的对比中，要善于认识到自身思维模式的缺点和他民族思维模式的优点，善于取长补短。
针对语言方面的差异，译者应不断加强对所译语言的敏感性，从语音、词汇、语法、语义、修辞等各方面不断提高自身的语言修养，要培养自己养成一种规律性阅读所译语言所写的各种文本的习惯，及时了解所译语言的各种发展动态。
为避免因文化差异而造成的翻译中的文化交流障碍，译者就要清楚地意识到：作为翻译工作者，不仅要成为精通双语言的人，更要成为精通“双文化”的人，要善于识别待译作品中的文化术语和其中隐含的文化内涵，不断培养自身的“文化意识”，同时要在正确翻译观的指导下知道如何处理文化差异。比如碰到原文中出现文化缺省而译文读者又不可能根据上下文感知到的情况时，译者就要在译作时善于抓住缺省的文化信息，并采用适当的手段将其补充完整，以避免造成文化信息传递失误的后果。另外，译作过程中，对待源语文化和译语文化要客观公正。再者，译者还要认识到文化具有兼容性；正是因为文化的这种兼容性，各国之间的个个层面的交流才可能继续；译者的工作就是不断促进文化的这种兼容。
最后，要在翻译过程中视具体情况而采取不同的翻译手段。要认识到异化与归化作为两种不同的处理翻译的手段，并不是相互排斥、互不相容的，而是相辅相成、互相补充的。异化强调“保留源语文化”以丰富目的语文化及其表达方式，从而起到文化交流的作用；归化强调“交际第一”，译者不仅要设法克服语言的障碍，还要克服文化的障碍，从而避免因文化冲突而造成的各种形式的误解。从上述可以看出，二者都强调翻译的交际性，只是从不同的角度入手，侧重点不同罢了。在翻译过程中如何处理二者的关系至关重要。要始终记住一个大前提：翻译的目的就是为了交流。
要善于将二者结合。如翻译“东施效颦”可采用音译加直译/异化翻译出其字面意思，意译/归化注释法对其字面翻译进行补充。这样既达到了信息交流，也达到了文化交流。
参考文献：
1、胡壮麟,朱永生等.系统功能语言学概论[M].北京大学出版社,2006.
2、申小龙.汉语与中国文化[M].复旦大学出版社,2003.
东施效颦译文范文6
关键词： 文化词语； 文化内涵； 民族色彩； 超额翻译； 欠额翻译
根据辞海的解释，从广义来说， 文化是指人类社会历史实践过程中所创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和。从狭义来说， 指社会的意识形态， 以及与相适应的制度和组织机构， 文化是一种历史现象， 每一社会都有与其相适应的文化。长期以来， 文化被认为是无处不在， 无所不包的人类知识和行为的总体。在不同的生态或自然环境下， 不同的民族创造了自己特有的文化， 也被自己的文化所塑造。语言是文化的载体， 同时又是文化的一个重要组成部分。词语是语言最基本的要素， 文化的差异必然会反映在语言上， 并导致词语文化内涵的不同。一个民族的文化词语是这个民族精神的外在体现。不同民族， 在进行跨文化交际时， 必定会遇到两种文化的冲突， 由此也就会产生一些语际翻译的变通方法来解决这种冲突。本文试就文化词语及其翻译现象谈谈自己粗浅的看法。
一、文化词语（cultural- bound words）
文化词语在其本族语中有着特殊的文化内涵或民族色彩， 蕴含着其民族独特的思维方式，并在其本族语中被广泛使用。这类词语在英汉语言中都存在。
1、具有文化内涵的词语即指不同民族对相同的所指内容赋予的不同文化内涵或文化意义。这类词语通常既出现在源语
（the source language） 中， 也存在于目的语（the target language） 中， 但它们的文化内涵或此有彼无， 或部分重叠， 或截然不同。如： 提到松、竹、梅， 便会使汉族人联想到 岁寒三友， 具有 不畏严寒的伴随意义。汉族人常用它们来以物喻人， 以物抒怀。如 大雪压青松， 青松挺且直， 要知松高洁， 待到雪化时， 常爱凌寒竹， 坚贞可喻人， 宝剑锋从磨砺出， 梅花香自苦寒来等等。而英语中的pine， bamboo， plum 却不会使说英语的人产生任何联想。英语中的daffodil 是春天、欢乐的象征。英国著名诗人Wordsworth 曾用一首 I wandered lonely as a cloud描写daffodil 以反映诗人当时愉悦的心情， 而汉语中的 黄水仙花也仅仅是一种花而已。Owl（猫头鹰） 在汉语、英语文化中都有不吉利的联想意义， 而它在英语中又常常有聪明的象征意义。龙在英语文化中汉语文化中都存在。在汉语文化中， 龙是最具代表意义的， 它代表帝王， 是高贵、神圣、吉祥的象征。与龙的相关词语， 也明显具有至尊至上的正面意义， 诸如： 龙颜 真龙天子 龙子龙孙 望子成龙等等。而在英语文化中， 龙则是古代硕大、凶残的古怪野兽， 不仅无端吞食人类和动物， 而且制造水火灾害， 危及人类生存， 因而是邪恶的象征。同样， 由于地理位置的不同， 中英两国人对于 西风 和 west wind也有着截然不同的情感。
在英国， 当西风吹来的时候， 正是春天来临， 万物复苏的季节， 而在中国， 西风意味着 寒冷 凄凉， 西风吹来时， 正是深秋或隆冬。因此， 英国著名诗人雪莱在 西风颂 Ode to West Wind一诗中对west wind 给予了高度的赞扬， 而在汉语中， 5天净沙秋思6的作者马致远的描述则是 古道西风瘦马， 夕阳西下， 断肠人在天涯， 西风带来的则是凄凉、萧瑟的景象。
2、富有民族色彩的文化词语（words with ethnical flavour） ， 即指不同的民族由于民俗、地域、价值和宗教观念等方面的长期影响， 在语言上形成自己独有的表达形式， 并赋予其独特的文化意义。这类词汇往往在一种文化中存在， 在另一种文化中并不存在。如汉语文化中的 气功、饺子、太极拳、炕， 农历的节气， 中医的 阴、阳、寒、热，英语文化中的hippie， punk， bingo， party， boatel， motel 等等。正如一个中国人向他同住一室的朋友们解释他不去游泳的原因时所说的： 游泳池里人太多， 水太脏， 早该换了。简直像芝麻酱煮饺子。那外国人既没有吃过芝麻酱， 也没有见过 煮饺子， 因而他丝毫也感觉不到这个比喻的幽默所在。同样， 一个中国人如果没有见过打开的又小又扁的沙丁鱼罐头里紧紧塞满整整齐齐的几排手指头长的沙丁鱼， 也不一定能欣赏It was packed like sardines（塞得像沙丁鱼罐头一样） 的妙处。悠久的历史文化， 神话传说， 历史事件和文学作品等的沉淀， 都是构成各民族文化中富有民族色彩词语的原因。中国人常常会脱口而出， 诸如 跑龙套， 周瑜打黄盖， 姜太公钓鱼， 班门弄斧， 有眼不识泰山， 情人眼里出西施， 画蛇添足， 东施效颦等等。而英美人则常说诸如Oliver branch， Achilles heel， a Pandora. s box ， a Damocles sword， Trojan Horse， Noah’s ark， play one’s trump card， all’s well that ends well 之类的词语。
二、文化词语的翻译
翻译在跨文化交际中如同沟通两种语言文化之间的桥梁， 由于目的语与源语间的文化冲突， 在保留源语的语义、文化内涵、民族色彩的取舍问题上， 常会使译者陷入顾此失彼的窘境。P. Newmark 说过： 翻译是用一种语言代替另一种语言来传达同样的信息， 可是那意思总是有点走样。如果说得太多， 就成为超额翻译（over - loaded translation） ； 如果说的不够， 又会成为欠额翻译（under-loaded translation） 。我国著名的翻译家傅雷先生也曾指出 即使最优秀的译文， 其韵味较之原文仍不免过或不及。翻译时只能尽量缩短这个距离， 过则求其勿太过， 不及则求其勿过于不及。傅雷先生所说的过与不及实际上就是超额翻译和欠额翻译， 由此可见， 语际翻译中的超额与欠额现象是不可避免的。
1、超额翻译现象
超额翻译现象即语际翻译中目的语所承载的信息量大于源语信息量的现象。
例1. 黛玉正不知以何称呼， 众姐妹都忙告诉黛玉道： 这是琏二嫂子。黛玉虽不曾识面，听见他母亲说过： 大舅贾赦之子贾琏， 娶的就是二舅母王氏之内侄女； 自幼假充男儿教养的， 学名收做王熙凤。黛玉忙陪笑见礼， 以嫂呼之。（5红楼梦6第三回）
Tai-yu was at loss how to address her when her cousins came to her rescue. This is cousin Lien. s wife， they told her. Though Tai-yu had never met her， she knew from her mother that Chia Lien， the son of her first uncle Chia Sheh， had married the niece of Lady Wang， her second uncle. s wife. She had been educated like a boy and given the school- room name His- feng. Tai-yu lost no time in greeting her with a smile as cousin（ 杨宪益译）
例2. Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard. 衣橱藏骷髅， 家丑家家有。
汉语文化中， 千百年形成的家族内部的称谓是非常明确的，性别之分， 长幼之分， 血缘亲疏之分， 细之又细。而英语文化中的家族内部的称谓则相对含糊， 如sister 在英语中既指姐姐又指妹妹， 而cousin 一词则包括了汉语中除兄弟姐妹之外的所有同辈亲属， 还有uncle， aunt等， 它的语义涵盖范围较汉语同类词要大得多。所以将它们汉译英时， 必然会丢失原文的准确性， 造成目的语语义的含糊不清， 而汉语亲属关系表达之复杂， 使得译者又不可能将原文的种种关系都一一加注说明， 译文中势必会出现这种超额翻译现象。如例（1） 中将众姐妹译成her cousins、而将 嫂子、大舅、 二舅母等等在译文中都被作了her cousins 变通处理， 乃不得已而为。
例（2） 为一英语俗语， 如果将原句译成 每个家庭的衣裳橱里， 至少藏有一个骷髅， 那么这个句子可能只会给目的语读者一个很可怕的景象， 而对于原文想要表达的意义仍是一无所知。但运用增益的方式将其译成“衣橱藏骷髅， 家丑家家有”则既保持了原文的文化特色， 又准确地传递了原文的意思， 这种超额翻译是有益的。
2、欠额翻译现象
欠额翻译现象即语际翻译中， 目的语所承载的信息量小于源语的信息量的现象。
例3. 宝钗笑道： 我说你得陇望蜀呢， 我劝你且缓一缓（5红楼梦6第四十八回）
The more you get， the more you want！ chuckled Pao-Chai. （杨宪益译）
例4. The goal-keeper is the heel of Achilles.那守门员太弱是致命的缺陷。
例（3） 中的 得陇望蜀是汉语的一个成语， 源自东汉， 光武帝刘秀下命令给岑彭： 人苦不知足， 既平陇， 复望蜀教他平定陇右（今甘肃一带） 以后领兵南下， 攻取西蜀。（5现代汉语辞典6） 。以后人们常用此成语比喻人的欲望无止尽。这里的陇、蜀是汉语中的两个地名， 而本句中若将其译成： covet Sichuan after capturing Gansu或covet the land of Shu after getting the region of lung， 那么英语读者会丈二和尚摸不着头脑。 杨宪益先生将此成语意译出来，准确地表达了原文的内容， 但与此同时， 原文的民族的色彩也丢失了。
例（4） 中the heel of Achilles 即唯一致命的弱点。此典故出自荷马史诗5伊利亚特6。希腊英雄阿基里斯（Achilles） 出生后被他的母亲倒提着在冥河中浸过， 以便使之刀枪不入， 阿基里斯全身浸入水中， 唯独脚跟抓在母亲手里未湿， 所以脚跟成了唯一弱点； 以后阿基里斯在战斗中恰恰因脚跟受伤而死。本句说话人的意图并不是要向读者或听众介绍这一典故， 而是想表达守门员可能是导致球队失败的主要原因这一内容， 即便球队的球员很强， 这个守门员也如同Achilles 的脚跟一样， 因而译者从这一角度考虑， 在翻译中采用了欠额翻译。
3、超额、欠额翻译同时存在的现象
这种现象即指语际翻译中目的语与源语各自承载的信息量有部分重叠（overlapped） 的同时， 又在语义、文化内涵、民族色彩等方面空缺或冲突。
例5. 人家是醋罐子， 他是醋缸、醋瓮。（5红楼梦6第六十五回）
If other woman are jealous ， she. s a hundred times so！ （杨宪益译）
例6. 一则是天缘， 二来是情人眼里出西施！ （5红楼梦6第七十九回）
It. s partly fate， and partly a case of - Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. . （杨宪益译）
醋在汉语中的表层意义是一种调料， 5辞源6的解释是“用酒或酒糟发酵制成一种酸味之调料， 可表示酸味”， 它在英语中的对应词应为 vinegar。 醋的引申意义指在两性之间的爱情关系表现出的嫉妒， 也为 醋意或 吃醋， 这时它在英语中的对应词可以是jealous， 但无论是 vinegar还是 jealous都无法表达出 醋在汉语文化中所具有的联想意义） 一种酸溜溜的， 说不清道不明的情感。vinegar 在英语中的联想意义是bad temper， 没有 醋在汉语中的文化内涵； 而jealous 在英语中除了表示醋意的妒忌之外， 还可表示： ～ of one. s achievement （嫉妒别人的成就） ； ～ of one. s richness（嫉妒别人的富有） ； ～ of one’sbeautiful house（嫉妒别人漂亮的房子） 等等， 它的语义范围远远大于这种 醋意。其语义关系可用下图
N～和（ò）表示。由此可见例（5） 中将 醋罐、 醋缸、 醋瓮译成jealous 和a hundred times so 只是将原文的内容传达给了目的语读者， 而原文的民族色彩和文化内涵则全部丢失。此外， jealous 的语义范围远远超出了 醋在原文中的语义范围， 因而丢失了翻译的准确性（accuracy） 。
同样在例（6） 中 情人眼里出西施是汉语的一句谚语。西施是中国古代出了名的美人， 在汉语文化中被喻为美的象征， 并因她而起引出了许多典故、成语， 如 “病如西施”，“东施效颦”等等。即便如此，西施也不等同于beauty， 而只可能是beauty 中的一部分， 也就说beauty 的语义范围大于西施， 因而将 “西施”译为beauty 便出现了超额现象。而本句的译者用英语谚语替代了汉语谚语， 在向译作读者传达了原文内容的同时， 也丢失了原文的民族色彩。也就出现了欠额现象。
三、结语
汉语属于汉藏语系， 而英语属于印欧语系。经过多年的沉积， 它们都形成了各自的独特文化。正是这种文化的差异导致了语际翻译中超额与欠额现象的出现。从以上实例来看， 这些现象的存在往往有它们的必须性和合理性。如将 “龙颜”译成dragon’s face 或dragon’s visage，则很难想象目的语读者对此的感受和产生的联想。而将He is a Trojan Horse. 译作“他是个特洛伊木马”，目的语读者同样会不知所云。因此无论是超额翻译还是欠额翻译， 往往都是以牺牲源语的民族色彩或文化内涵为代价的， 在翻译中应尽量采用一些补偿（ compensation） 方式，尽最大可能传达原文的信息量， 并尽最大可能保留源语的文化因素， 如鲁迅所说： 一当然力求其易解， 二则保存着原作的丰姿。
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